4.4.4.4 Digital technologies and shift options: Mobility-as-a-Service

Digital technologies underpin the diffusion of MaaS, namely the supply of a range of mobility services through a single digital customer interface. MaaS integrates different transport, information and payment services into a smooth and reliable customer experience. It can include traditional public transport, car, scooter or bike sharing and demand-responsive modes, allowing multi-modal, door-to-door travel using a single platform and potentially replacing the need for vehicle ownership (e.g. car, motorcycle, bicycle or scooter). MaaS therefore allows consumers to shift between different mobility options and, importantly, away from carbon-intensive options towards more sustainable modes of transportation, including public transport, active travel, micro-mobility and shared modes (OECD/ITF, 2020; Kamargianni et al., 2016). 

MaaS is an emerging framework of transport systems. Several test cases can be found in Helsinki with an application called Whim developed by MaaS Global, which allows planning and using a cab, metro, light rail, bus, car or bicycle and paying with a QR code. InVienna, the Wien Mobil app integrates public transportation, self-service bicycles, car-sharing, cabs, scooters and parking lots. In Djakarta, a case study demonstrated that shared motorcycle services improve mobility, but not GHG emissions (Suatmadi et al., 2019). Payment for public transport can be done in the application, yet there is no integrated multimodal fare between different operators in the platform. Similarly, Hannover developed an application called Mobility Shop, which provides access to public transport, car-sharing and cabs. The app assists with trip planning, and all mobility is paid with a monthly invoice automatically debited from a user’s bank account.

The achievement of PTP in the context of MaaS is linked to whole-system adoption, particularly in the context of moving towards less carbon-intensive modes, including micro-mobility and ridesharing efficiency. The value and utility of MaaS increases with its penetration rate. On the one hand, as more travellers resort to it, the value of using MaaS will increase for all users. In addition, it would also enhance non-user motivation to explore MaaS.

The high mitigation potential of MaaS in the transportation sector fundamentally depends on the ability of digital applications to reduce frictions and promote coordination. MaaS can reduce transport CO₂ emissions by encouraging modal shifts and changing vehicle ownership patterns. 

Nevertheless, the results may only be limited once this model is sufficiently implemented to change lifestyles and social norms. Leveraging the benefits of MaaS options requires limiting rebound effects and problematic inefficient solutions by regulations and public policy (Creutzig et al., 2019). Some evidence of short-term impacts for partially implemented systems were assessed by the project MAASiFiE, showing a reduction of eight and a half per cent in emissions due to less car use and some promoted shift to other modes. Other co-benefits are the efficiency, affordability and accessibility for citizens.

The widespread development of MaaS hinges on the availability and reliability of digital devices and interfaces: providers need to be able to access integrated platforms under suitable rules governing competition, pricing and service provision; users need the ability to access requisite digital technologies and skills. Legislative, commercial, governance and technological changes are likely needed to establish MaaS successfully. Several organisational models for a MaaS market involve varying levels of involvement by public authorities. 

Similar to the telework case, it therefore requires a public policy framework that both favours new MaaS options, directs outcomes towards public purpose (e.g. lower congestion and GHG emissions), ensures MaaS supports rather than cannibalises public transport, and also limits private motorised transport. MaaS PTP could be a central enabler of a wider strategy to dislodge the private car as the dominant and preferred mobility option, particularly in urban contexts. Resulting societal benefits could be large, but the transformation is socially and politically difficult.